Over a year since controversy around carbon monoxide inhalation in cycling began, the World Anti Doping Authority (WADA), has announced it will ban the use of the gas for performance enhancing methods from 2026.

Carbon monoxide (CO) inhalation involves breathing in a dose of the gas through a measurement tool called a CO rebreather. The exposure to the gas can trigger hypoxia (a lack of oxygen), which can lead to the release of red blood cells in the body, improving aerobic capacity like VO2max and maximal oxygen uptake. This form of blood manipulation as a tool to enhance athletic performance is to be banned.

“The non-diagnostic use of carbon monoxide (CO) was added to the Prohibited Methods as a new section, M 1.4,” WADA wrote in an update to its Prohibited List. “It can increase erythropoiesis [the overproduction of red blood cells] under certain conditions.”

Whilst no WorldTour teams have confirmed their use of CO inhalation for this purpose, Visma Lease-a-Bike, Israel Premier Tech and UAE Team Emirates have all used the measurement tool to legally measure the blood values and psychological benefits of altitude training in their athletes.

This use of CO inhalation for diagnostic purposes to measure blood volume will remain legal.

The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) banned the substance from its races in February 2025, to "protect the health of the riders." Even within a controlled medical setting, the organisation outlined that each inhalation for diagnostic purposes must be recorded in an athlete's medical record.

Despite teams including UAE insisting that "carbon monoxide [...] is a well established, safe, professional method that is backed by a very large amount of research,” the UCI maintained its position.

The practice of CO doping was first exposed by Escape Collective in July of last year, who warned that its use could infringe WADA’s rules around the artificial manipulation of blood.

The article concluded with a clear warning: “There is no hard evidence that WorldTeams are using CO inhalation for performance enhancement. But their exploration of the technique alone makes it more likely that someone else will cross that line.”

Teams were quick to respond. Uno-X Mobility told the outlet that the use of CO rebreathers for diagnostic purposes “is not something we are even considering”, and UAE Team Emirates dropped its use of the tool post-publication.

"I understand if it's misused, but I never knew that it could be misused," Jonas Vingegaard said in a press conference for Visma Lease-a-Bike last November, the rider later continuing: "We measure the day we get to altitude and then the day we go back down. We see the difference in how much haemoglobin is built up. There is nothing more to it.”

The ruling on the ban on performance enhancing CO inhalation will come into effect in 2026.

Using a banned substance through TUEs will not make you more likely to win an Olympic medal, according to a new anti-doping study.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has investigated the connection between Therapeutic Use Exemptions and Olympic success and found “no meaningful association.”

By exploring results from the last five Summer and Winter Olympics, between 2010 and 2019, WADA looked to see if those with TUEs won more medals than those without.

TUEs, the process which allows athletes to use prohibited medication to treat a legitimate medical condition, have been major talking point in recent years after Sir Bradley Wiggins and Team Sky were accused of “crossing an ethical line” for their use of the system between 2011 and 2013.

WADA medical director Dr Alan Vernec, who carried out the study, said: ““The percentage of athletes with TUEs competing in elite sport and the association with winning medals has been a matter of speculation in the absence of validated competitor data. The Olympic Games provides a unique opportunity to analyse sport at the highest level with a clearly defined group of competing athletes.

“The data showed that the number of athletes competing with valid TUEs (in individual competitions) at the selected Games was less than one per cent. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that there is no meaningful association between competing with a TUE and the likelihood of winning a medal.”

TUEs are granted by anti-doping agencies to athletes with a medical condition that requires treatment with a banned substance, and WADA says exemptions are only granted after a “robust review process.”

Athletes have the right to keep their use of TUEs private as it relates to their own personal health.

Chris Froome is among the athletes who has been given a TUE in his career, in 2013 and 2014 for treatment for his exacerbated asthma.

Both Froome and Wiggins were among five British athletes whose WADA medical records were leaked by computer hackers in 2016.

Froome said he had “no issues” with the leaks as he had already spoken publicly about his use of TUEs.

But the leak also revealed that Wiggins received a TUE for three injections of the powerful corticosteroid, triamcinolone to treat hay-fever before a number of key races, including the 2012 Tour de France which he won.

Wiggins then went on to win gold in the London 2012 Olympic time trial straight after the Tour.

After a two-year investigation into anti-doping practices, the MPs from the Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee said that Team Sky had crossed an “ethical line” by administering the steroid, with many arguing since that the TUE system should be banned.

WADA found that 20,139 athletes competed in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games between 2010 and 2018, with 2,062 medals awarded.

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Athletes using a TUE competed in 0.9 per cent (181 out of 20,139) of competitions, while just 21 of the 2,000 medals awarded went to athletes with a TUE.

Dr Vernec said: “The TUE Program is a necessary part of sport allowing athletes with legitimate medical conditions to compete on a level playing field. It has overwhelming acceptance from athletes, physicians and anti-doping stakeholders, and there is a stringent process in place to avoid abuse of the system. The results of this study provide objective data to dispel some of the misunderstandings and misgivings surrounding TUEs.”

Athletes caught using drugs like cocaine and cannabis will face much shorter doping bans under new rules.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has approved plans to reduce the length of bans for recreational drugs use, arguing the substances often have no performance enhancing effects.

As part of the revised anti-doping code, which will be introduced in 2021 and informs the rules on fair play in sport around the world, bans for “substances of abuse” will be reduced to a maximum of three months, rather than the existing four-year sanction that his handed out for doping offences.

WADA spokesman James Fitzgerald told Cycling Weekly: “During the extensive two-year review process for the 2021 version of the World Anti-Doping Code, we received considerable stakeholder feedback related to substances of abuse, such as cocaine or cannabis. It was felt that the use of these drugs was often unrelated to sport performance.

“While the code does not prohibit the use of these drugs out of competition, sometimes a presence is detected at an in-competition test even though the use occurred in a social context with no effect.

“It was felt also that in cases where an athlete has a drug problem and is not seeking or benefitting from performance enhancement, the priority should be on the athlete’s health rather than on imposing a lengthy sporting sanction.”

Mr Fitzgerald added: “In addition, currently substantial resources are being spent arguing in hearings over the appropriate length of sanction in substance abuse cases. These resources could be better spent on anti-doping investigations or ADVR (anti-doping rule violations) that really do affect the level playing field of sport.”

Both cocaine and cannabis are included in the WADA list of prohibited substances in competition, which means any athlete testing positive for these drugs faces a four-year doping ban unless they can prove the rule violation wasn’t intentional.

In the cycling world, Classics superstar Tom Boonen tested positive for cocaine three times between 2007 and 2009 and was twice suspended from racing by his team but didn’t receive sanction from anti-doping bodies, with the Belgian later saying he had a problem with substance abuse.

Italian star Luca Paolini was thrown off the Tour de France in 2015 after testing positive for cocaine and he was handed an 18-month doping ban the following year.

Cycling's international governing body, the UCI, incorporate WADA rules into its anti-doping policy.

In its review of the anti-doping code, WADA said concerned stakeholders raised concern over recreational drugs, with cocaine use a particular problem.

Stakeholders raised concerns about athlete health in relation to these drugs, saying that health should be the priority where an athlete has a drug problem, not a performance enhancement problem.

Based on these concerns, WADA has agreed to change the rules included in its code as part of the wide-ranging review which will be implemented in 2021.

The new rule says that the ban will be reduced to a flat three months for any athlete that can prove the substance was taken out of competition and was unrelated to sport performance.

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The athlete can then reduce the period of ineligibility down to one month if they complete a rehabilitation programme, which addresses concerns about athlete health.

If an athlete can established that in-competition use of the drug was unrelated to sport performance, then the violation will not be considered intentional, which means a two-year ban will be handed out.

WADA’s foundation board and executive committee approved changes to the code during the WADA World Conference, held in Katowice, Poland from November 5-7.

A new “ground-breaking” doping test that can catch blood dopers weeks or months after a transfusion could be used at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games.

President of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), Thomas Bach, has revealed that a revolutionary gene-based test could be ready for use at the Olympics next year, which he hopes will act as a deterrent for cheats.

The new analysis would be a welcome tool in the fight against doping after the revelations surrounding the Operation Aderlass blood doping ring in Austria and Germany.

Police raids resulted in a number of professional cyclists being banned, despite having never tested positive.

In his address to the Wold Conference on Doping in Sport, held in Katowice, Poland on Tuesday (November 5), Bach said: “With research on genetic sequencing progressing well, this new approach could be a ground-breaking method to detect blood doping, weeks or even months after it took place.

“If approved by WADA [World Anti-Doping Agency], such new gene testing could be used already at the Olympic Games Tokyo 2020.

“These new methods will again strengthen deterrence. We want the cheats to never feel safe, anytime or anywhere.”

Research into the new gene test has been spearheaded by Yannis Pitsiladis, a professor of sports science and genetics at the University of Brighton, who sits on the International Olympic Committee’s medical and scientific commission.

Professor Pitsiladis, who has been researching the new method since 2006, says that by identifying changes to the body’s genetic signature caused by blood doping, authorities can identify the cheaters.

This method is expected to work for both blood transfusions and the use of blood boosters like EPO.

Professor Pitsiladis has been able to identify which genes are “turned on” when blood has been manipulated while testing a group of volunteer amateur athletes.

The IOC and WADA have also invested in the Dried Blood Spot method of dope testing, which involves analysing  a drop of dried blood on filter paper, rather than the usual urine or blood samples, and allows for cheaper transport and storage with less sample degradation.

Alongside these new testing methods, the IOC also wants to increase focus on athletes’ entourages in doping cases, punishing the staff around the athlete involved.

>>> Fancy Bear hackers target anti-doping agencies ahead of Tokyo 2020 Olympics 

Bach added: “Whether it was the systemic manipulation of the anti-doping system in Russia, or the investigations around 'Operation Aderlass', or the most recent allegations against a coach of the former Nike Oregon Project – all these cases, as different as they are, highlight the urgent need to focus much more on the athletes’ entourage.

“We need zero-tolerance for everybody: athletes and entourage.

“This means that for each doping case, we have to identify everybody who is implicated. We cannot just sanction the athlete and let the others go. This is a question of credibility and justice."

The infamous Fancy Bear hackers have carried out multiple cyberattacks against anti-doping agencies ahead of the Tokyo 2020 Olympics.

Details of the hacks were published by the Microsoft Threat Intelligence Centre, which revealed that the cyber criminal organisation attacked at least 16 national and international doping authorities.

Fancy Bear, also known as Strontium and APT28, previously hit headlines in 2016 when they published data stolen from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), including details of Sir Bradley Wiggins’s controversial Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE).

The fallout from the Wiggins revelations were significant, resulting in a committee of MPs saying Team Sky “crossed an ethical line” by giving the 2012 Tour de France winner triamcinolone.

In a blog post, published on Tuesday (October 29), Microsoft’s corporate vice president for customer security, Tom Burt, said: “Today we’re sharing that the Microsoft Threat Intelligence Centre has recently tracked significant cyberattacks originating from a group we call Strontium, also known as Fancy Bear/APT28, targeting anti-doping authorities and sporting organisations around the world.

“As the world looks forward with anticipation to the Tokyo Summer Games in 2020, we thought it important to share information about this new round of activity.”

Microsoft has revealed that the 16 attacks began on September 16, just before new reports revealed WADA was considering banning Russia from the Olympics because discrepancies at the Moscow anti-doping lab.

Some of the attacks were successful, Microsoft said, but the majority were not. Everyone affected by the hacks has been notified.

Fancy Bear used the same techniques they have used to target governments, militaries, think tanks, law firms, human rights organisations, financial firms and universities, including spear-phishing (fraudulent emails), password spray (trying common passwords), exploiting internet-connected devices, and the use of open-source and custom malware.

The previous campaign against anti-doping organisations, between December 2014 and at least May 2018, was aimed to discredit the efforts of the organisations and officials who had exposed Russian state-sponsored doping, which resulted in more than 100 Russian athletes being excluded from competing in the 2016 Rio Olympics.

As a result of the hacks between 2014 and 2018, the US Department of Justice indicted seven Russian intelligence officers for computer hacking, wire fraud, aggravated identity theft and money laundering.

The president of WADA has responded to criticism after cycling anti-doping campaigners called for him to resign.

Sir Craig Reedie, head of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), was attacked by the Movement for Credible Cycling (MPCC) last week over his organisation’s response to a slew of doping controversies.

In an open letter the MPCC called for Reedie’s resignation, raising issue with WADA’s enforcement in the Operation Puerto doping scandal, Chris Froome’s salbutamol case and the legality of Tramadol.

Reedie has now responded to the criticism in a letter back to the MPCC, accusing the organisation over oversimplifying and misunderstanding WADA’s work.

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In the letter, Reedie said: “I would like to point out that your letter was received on October 24, ironically the same day as WADA won a significant victory for clean cycling in securing enhanced bans for three of your sport’s most notorious cheats.

“The decision by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) to uphold our appeal, which was supported by the UCI, USADA and everyone who cares about clean sport, has certainly undermined your assertion that WADA is not upholding the rights of clean athletes.

“In fact, nothing could be further from the truth – in everything we do, WADA is keeping the athletes to the fore.”

The CAS case in question is that of former manager to Lance Armstrong, Johan Bruyneel, who was banned from cycling for life the day the MPCC letter was sent.

In its letter the MPCC, which was created in 2007 by professional cycling teams concerned that the UCI wasn’t doing enough to combat doping, raised issues with four key WADA investigations.

The first is the legality of the opioid painkiller Tramadol, which is monitored by WADA but is not banned, despite calls from the MPCC for it to be outlawed.

Also raised in the letter is Operation Puerto, a 2006 blood doping scandal that saw hundreds of blood bags linked to athletes seized in police raids.

The MPCC then went on to raise issue with the Chris Froome salbutamol case, after the Team Sky rider delivered an adverse analytical finding during the 2017 Vuelta a España.

According to the MPCC, the Froome case demonstrated that sanctions are not applied equally after the Brit was cleared of any wrongdoing.

Finally, the MPCC raised issue with the reinstating of the Russian Anti-Doping Agency, which was suspended in 2015 after it was accused of covering up doping.

>>> Spanish court permits release of Operation Puerto blood bags to Italian Olympic Committee

President of WADA Sir Craig Reedie has responded to each of the claims set out in the letter from the MPCC.

Reedie said he will lead WADA until the end of his second term on December 2019, but will happily pass on the leadership then.

On Tramadol, Reedie says there is no consensus among WADA experts that the painkiller should be banned.

Speaking about Operation Puerto, Reedie said: “WADA has been very proactive in this case, invested significant resources since the case emerged in 2006 and has done everything possible to date from a legal standpoint and in every other way, to conclude that sorry episode in a way that secures justice for clean athletes.

“To criticise WADA in this case demonstrates an astonishing lack of knowledge and understanding of what has happened to date.”

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On the Russian Anti-Doping Agency’s (RUSADA) reinstatement, Reedie says it was “the right decision for clean sport and that WADA is in a stronger position because of it.”

He argues that WADA will obtain access to data so can pursue cheaters or can impose harsher punishment on RUSADA in future.

Finally, on the Chris Froome case, Reedie says: “WADA remains convinced that the UCI reached the correct and fair outcome in what was a very complex case.

“Your efforts to over-simplify it, without having knowledge of the voluminous file of the case and both the scientific and legal challenges it raised, demonstrated an unfortunate attempt to case a shadow on WADA’s credibility and an obvious refusal to accept the reality of what happened.”

Professional cycle sport's global governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale, has said that it will consider making further changes to the controversial therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificate system in the wake of the UK parliament’s Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee 'Combatting Doping in Sport' report.

The Committee's report published on Monday said that Team Sky had 'crossed an ethical line' by administering corticosteroid triamcinolone to Bradley Wiggins ahead of the 2011 and 2012 Tour de France and 2013 Giro d'Italia.

Wiggins had a TUE issued by the UCI for triamcinolone to treat allergies. Wiggins's TUE was leaked by the Fancy Bears hacking group in September 2016, which also published the TUEs of several other cyclists and athletes involved in the 2016 Rio Olympic Games.

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The UCI said in its statement responding to the Committee report: "The conclusions in the Report (insofar as cycling is concerned) support and reinforce the UCI’s concerns about the potential abuse of Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUEs), in particular with respect to corticosteroids. As noted by the DCMS, these concerns were first raised in the Cycling Independent Reform Commission’s report in 2015 and appear to remain an issue today."

"As far as TUEs are concerned, the UCI reinforced its rules in 2014 to ensure that the UCI TUE Committee is composed of multiple independent experts in the fields of clinical, sports and exercise medicine and that a TUE can only be granted if there is unanimity amongst the three members of the TUE Committee Panel.

"Having said that, the UCI fully supports the DCMS’s conclusion that 'the TUE system needs to be kept under permanent review' and the UCI will continue to consider possible improvements that could be made to its TUE system."

>>> ‘We never crossed the ethical line’: Bradley Wiggins responds to doping in sport report

The use of corticosteroids and powerful painkiller tramadol were highlighted in the Committee's report, and the UCI says that it will continue to request that the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) considers placing both on its list of banned substances. This is in line with a statement issued by UK Anti-Doping chief Nicole Sapstead on Monday, who said UKAD would also like to see corticosteroids and tramadol banned.

"The UCI also shares the DCMS’s concerns about the use of both corticosteroids and the painkiller Tramadol in cycling. As a signatory of the World Anti-Doping Code, the UCI is bound by the current Prohibited List, however the UCI has requested, and will continue to request, that the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) take additional steps in relation to corticosteroids and Tramadol.

"This is a subject that is particularly important to the UCI’s President [David Lappartient], who will discuss the issue with the WADA President at their next meeting in April. In addition to this, WADA has set up a working group on the matter and the UCI, through the Cycling Anti-Doping Foundation (CADF), is in touch with this working group."

Both Team Sky and Bradley Wiggins have issued statements refuting that they crossed an ethical line.

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) president Craig Reedie has said that the controversial therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificate system 'works perfectly'.

The TUE system was thrust into the spotlight during 2016 after the Fancy Bears computer hacking group illegally obtained copies of TUEs for athletes attending the 2016 Rio Olympic Games via an account set up for the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

British cyclists Bradley Wiggins, Chris Froome, Steve Cummings, Callum Skinner and Laura Kenny were among those whose confidential TUEs were published online.

>>> WADA explains how Fancy Bears hackers got into athletes’ confidential medical files

A TUE is given to an athlete when they have been prescribed a substance on WADA's prohibited list for a legitimate medical reason. Questions have been raised since their publication, in particular as to why a number of athletes needed drugs to treat asthma.

"It's been given huge publicity by the hacking," said Reedie of the TUE system. "But as far as we're concerned the system works properly, the medical rules are quite clear and they are followed by sport."

"The TUEs are allocated and agreed by responsible people in sport. The presentation by the hacking [Fancy] Bears wasn't particularly on a sports basis, it was on a political basis. You notice it was always leading athletes from the western world, so you can understand why it was done."

>>> Steve Cummings’s medical data published by Russian hackers

Although the exact identity and location of the Fancy Bears group is unknown, it is widely believed that they were based in Russia. It is also believed that the hacks were in response to the proposed ban on Russian athletes from the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games.

WADA called for the IOC to ban Russia from the 2016 Games on the basis that the country was responsible for organised doping among its athletes.

Reedie was re-elected as WADA president for a second three-year term on Sunday. WADA's responsibility is to "promote, coordinate, and monitor at the international level the fight against doping in sports in all its forms".

Swedish pro cyclist Emma Johansson is among the latest batch of medical data to be published by the Russian hacking group Fancy Bears.

Rio 2016 Olympic Games road race silver medallist Johansson, who rides for Wiggle-High5, had her therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificate placed online by Fancy Bears on Monday.

Fancy Bears illegally accessed confidential TUE files stored on the computer system of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). They have been publishing them in batches over the past month, with Johansson's TUE part of the sixth batch.

Johansson has just a single TUE, for anaesthetic drugs alfentanil and sufentanil used during an operation in October 2015 to repair a broken collarbone. The drugs were administered intravenously.

>>> Steve Cummings’s medical data published by Russian hackers

A comment on the TUE - presumably made by Johansson - reads "Got these medicaments during my operation, have not gotten anything since then".

Venezuelan BMX rider Stefany Hernandez also had her TUE published, for asthma drug Seretide (fluticasone propionate) administered via an inhaler. The TUE ran from September 15 2014 to January 15 2015.

No British cyclists were included in the latest round of TUEs published by Fancy Bears. The lone British athlete was Olympic triathlon champion Alistair Brownlee, whose TUE is for acetazolamide, an altitude sickness drug. Brownlee said via Twitter that he was given the drug after suffering from altitude sickness while climbing Kilimanjaro in October 2013.

TUEs are issued when a drug that is on WADA's prohibited list is administered for a legitimate medical reason. The presence of a TUE is not a sign of wrongdoing.

Previously, Fancy Bears have published the TUEs for British cyclists Chris Froome, Bradley Wiggins, Steve Cummings, Laura Trott and Callum Skinner.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has said that athletes should not be required to publish their therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificates and says they 'should [not] be required to publicly defend their legitimate use of a TUE'.

The statements were made as part of a 'frequently asked questions' (FAQ) document published by WADA on Tuesday evening in the light of the publication of TUEs from many athletes from a variety of sports by Russian hacking group, Fancy Bears.

WADA says that there is a lot of 'misinformation' relating to TUEs, and it hopes that the document clarifies their use. Several riders whose TUEs have been published have since made public statements regarding their documents, including British Olympic gold medallists Bradley Wiggins and Callum Skinner.

Fancy Bears illegally obtained the confidential TUEs from WADA's computer system by hacking into its files. The hacking group has been publishing them online, so far in five batches. TUEs are issued when an athlete requires a substance on WADA's Prohibited List for a legitimate medical reason.

>>> Chris Boardman backs calls to make TUEs public

"This situation has led to a lot of media coverage; and, unfortunately, a tremendous amount of misinformation as it relates to TUEs," said WADA.

"It is very unfortunate that athletes’ TUEs are being debated publically [sic] on the basis of partial, confidential, medical information. Athletes should not be required to publically justify their TUEs."

The TUE document is freely available to download from WADA's website, and outlines what TUEs are for, how and why they are granted to athletes, and whether they can be used to 'cheat'. It also explains how the TUEs were obtained by Fancy Bears and whether its computer system is secure.

Under a section of the document titled 'Why is information on athletes' use of TUEs not publicly disclosed?', WADA says:

"It is a fundamental human right that personal medical information be kept confidential. Nobody would want such information disclosed, let alone for it to be debated publically.

"Athletes should not be required to publish their TUE information, which may de facto disclose their disease or condition, nor should they be required to publically defend their legitimate use of a TUE.

"It is very unfortunate that, with the cyber-hacking situation, athletes’ TUEs are being debated publically on the basis of partial, confidential, medical information and misinformation as it relates to the TUE program.

"The TUE program is a rigorous and necessary part of elite sport; which has overwhelming acceptance from athletes, physicians and all anti-doping stakeholders."

On Monday evening, Team Sky principal Dave Brailsford said that the British WorldTour squad may publish TUEs issued to its riders in future.

WADA also explained in its FAQ document that its Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS) is secure, and that there 'is no reason to believe' that Fancy Bears gained access to wider information on the confidential system.

"The cyber-attack was made possible by spear phishing of email accounts through which hackers gained access to ADAMS via an account created for the Rio 2016 Games," said the statement.

"WADA has no reason to believe that they have accessed the broader ADAMS system."

Chris Froome (Team Sky) has taken to Twitter to explain his stance on therapeutic use exemptions (TUEs), saying that the system is "open to abuse" and that this is something the authorities "need to urgently address."

Froome, who had two TUEs for asthma medication - a fact already known before the recent leaks -  released the statement to make his position on the whole episode clear.

Aware of his own standing in the peloton, Froome says: "I know that I have to not only abide by the rules, but also go above and beyond to set a good example both morally and ethically."

He added, "it is clear that the TUE system is open to abuse and I believe that this is something that the UCI and WADA needs (sic) to urgently address."

The three-time Tour de France winner also refused a TUE on his way to victory in the biggest race of the year in 2015 so as to avoid any criticism.

“It would have been within the rules, but I didn’t want it to be the Tour de France that was won because [I] took this medication in the last week,” Froome told the Sunday Times of that episode.

How the authorities might address the gaps in the TUE system is less clear. Sir Dave Brailsford, himself embroiled in the storm around Sir Bradley Wiggins's use of intramuscular asthma medication, has hinted at Team Sky releasing all TUEs.

This would go against patient confidentiality guidelines but would make the use of TUEs more transparent.

There is no suggestion of any wrongdoing by Froome, Wiggins or Team Sky.

British track sprinter Callum Skinner has made the move of publishing his National Health Service medical records in order to prove that he has been a long-term sufferer of asthma and that he has 'nothing to hide'.

Skinner put copies of his medical records online on Monday evening in the wake of having his therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificates published by hacking group Fancy Bears last week. Skinner wrote an accompanying column for the Scotsman to explain his medical records.

Rio 2016 Olympic gold and silver medallist Skinner's TUEs show that  he was prescribed prednisolone, a glucocorticoid used to treat inflammation, on November 6 2014; and asthma drug salbutamol for two days, January 25-26 2016.

"When I went on Twitter and saw a headline with my name and stories with my picture I knew that people would be sceptical and think my TUEs could be questionable," the 24-year-old wrote in the Scotsman.

"And to be honest, I sympathise. I imagine myself a few years ago, as a cycling fan. I would have read the headline, not bothered opening the article, and moved on, putting two and two together and concluding that it all sounded a bit dodgy.

"After the leak I resolved to release my NHS medical records, so I’ve spent the past week phoning doctors I’ve seen and the hospitals to which I have been admitted on four occasions having suffered asthma attacks. I was keen to make my records public for two reasons: to prove that my condition is real, but also to show that asthma need not stop somebody competing at the highest level."

>>> Callum Skinner’s anti-doping data published by Russian hackers

Skinner writes that he was inspired by fellow Scot Chris Hoy to take up cycling at the age of 12, despite his asthma, saying: "I was attracted to the sprint events because these seemed easier for an asthmatic. You go and do your effort then come off the track and, if your chest is tight, use your inhaler before you go again."

In order to manage his asthma symptoms and reply less on medication, Skinner says that he has sought the advice of respiratory experts and changed his diet to help alleviate his condition.

However, Skinner says that a childhood bout of pneumonia related to his asthma has resulted in him being prone to chest infections. He states that he pulled out of competition in December 2014 due to illness rather than apply for another TUE, missing the European Championships and a Track World Cup.

"Sometimes TUEs are necessary – I had my second in January after falling ill, with a two-day treatment of salbutamol clearing up the problem and causing minimum disruption to my training," said Skinner.

"I’m not claiming the TUE system is perfect. One athlete using the system for performance enhancement rather than for genuine health reasons is one too many. But personally, I have no issue with all my TUEs, and drug test results, being made public.

"If you have nothing to hide, you have nothing to fear."

TUE certificates are issued when an athlete has been prescribed a drug on the World Anti-Doping Agency's prohibited list for a medical reason. The TUEs are held by WADA as part of an athlete's anti-doping file.

Russian hacking group Fancy Bears illegally obtained TUEs from confidential records stored on WADA's computer system, and have been publishing them in batches.

A TUE is not evidence of wrong-doing.

Steve Cummings has said that his therapeutic use exemption (TUE) certificate for salbutamol was for the treatment of asthma.

Cummings's TUE was published online by Russian hacking group Fancy Bears on Friday, and relates to the administration of salbutamol via inhalation for 12 months from December 10 2008. TUEs are issued when an athlete has to take a prohibited substance for a legitimate medical reason.

“The TUE for a salbutamol inhaler was granted following a positive diagnostic test which had to be submitted to the relevant anti-doping authorities," said the 35-year-old Dimension Data rider.

"As with many other athletes I continue to use this medication when needed to treat my condition, however, a TUE is no longer required for its use since it is now widely acknowledged it has no performance-enhancing effect, merely relieves symptoms and those who need to use it for genuine medical reasons.”

>>> Steve Cummings’s medical data published by Russian hackers

Salbutamol is currently not on the World Anti-Doping Agency's prohibited substances list, although there is a limit to the amount an athlete can take in a given period. According to WADA's regulations, inhaled salbutamol can be taken by athletes up to 1600 micrograms over 24 hours. An amount of salbutamol taken by an athlete above that threshold could trigger an adverse analytical finding in a sample.

The WADA list states: "The presence in urine of salbutamol in excess of 1000 ng/mL or formoterol in excess of 40 ng/mL is presumed not to be an intended therapeutic use of the substance and will be considered as an Adverse Analytical Finding (AAF) unless the Athlete proves, through a controlled pharmacokinetic study, that the abnormal result was the consequence of the use of the therapeutic inhaled dose up to the maximum indicated above."

Salbutamol was removed from WADA's banned list for 2010, and at that time WADA stated: "Following several years of practice and consideration of all relevant information from stakeholders and others, WADA’s List Committee recommended a change for the status of the beta-2 agonist salbutamol – a substance listed as a specified substance in the 2009 List.

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"Over the past few years, almost all cases where salbutamol has been detected were covered by Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUEs). In the 2010 List, therapeutic use of inhaled salbutamol will not be prohibited and will therefore no longer require a TUE. For monitoring purposes, athletes using inhaled salbutamol will be required to declare their use on the Doping Control Form when they are tested."

As with other TUEs published by Fancy Bears, there is no indication of wrongdoing by Cummings. British riders Bradley Wiggins, Chris Froome, Laura Trott and Callum Skinner are among the other athletes from a varierty of nations to have their TUEs published.

Fancy Bears accessed WADA's confidential computer files illegally, downloading historic TUEs for athletes attending the Rio 2016 Olympic Games. It has been publishing them in batches during September. Fancy Bears says that it 'stands for fair play and clean sport'.

UK Anti-Doping (UKAD) has condemned a leak of athletes' data by Russian hackers from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which saw the likes of Sir Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome have their medical data shared online.

The confidential information was illegally obtained from an Anti-Doping Administrative Management System (ADAMS) account belonging to the International Olympic Committee.

UK Anti-Doping Chief Executive Nicole Sapstead said “WADA has confirmed that information pertaining to British athletes, obtained through an IOC ADAMS account created for the Rio 2016 Games, has been published online without prior permission of the athletes concerned."

Included in the leak is information about Therapeutic Use Exemptions (TUEs) for both British Tour de France winners.

The hacked data show no wrongdoing on the part of either Froome or Wiggins, but the information forms part of confidential medical records.

“UKAD strongly condemns actions of this nature and we are appalled that five members of Team GB have had their private data published illegally online," Sapstead continued. "Not only does it undermine our work and the protection of clean sport, but it is grossly unfair to the athletes, whose personal data has been put at risk.

“We continue to treat this matter with the utmost concern and seriousness, and we are working hard with WADA to urgently determine what impact, if any, this may have on other British athletes, and exactly what information may have been compromised."

Following the hack, Chris Froome spoke out about his own TUEs, saying that it only backed up what he had said before to the press.

“I’ve openly discussed my TUEs with the media and have no issues with the leak, which only confirms my statements,” Froome said.

“In nine years as a professional, I’ve twice required a TUE for exacerbated asthma, the last time was in 2014.”

Earlier this season Simon Yates was given a four-month suspension as a result of an administration error regarding a TUE. Yates uses an inhaler for asthma but his team doctor had not filed a TUE when he tested positive for Terbutalin at Paris-Nice.

Yates's Orica team took responsibility for the error and the rider was able to return to competition, most recently coming sixth overall in the Vuelta a España.

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UKAD has been in touch with all members of the Team GB whose information may be at risk.

“As the situation evolves - as more information becomes available to us from WADA - we will continue to keep those affected updated," Sapstead added.

TUEs have grown to become a contentious issue and UKAD sought to reinforce its position on the medical exemptions.

“It is important to note that in the UK, applications for TUEs are subject to a strict and independent process," Sapstead pointed out. "Applications submitted to UKAD are assessed by at least three independent medics and are then referred to WADA, which has further independent oversight of applications.

“This robust process is in place to ensure that TUEs are granted based solely on medical need - they are not an indication of doping. They are there to support the clean athlete’s right to compete, despite a medical condition.”

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) have confirmed that they have jointly obtained samples from blood and plasma bags seized 10 years ago in the Operation Puerto doping investigation.

In separate statements, both organisations made it clear that the samples were being stored outside Spain in a WADA-accredited laboratory.

>>> UCI ‘determining options’ to analyse Operation Puerto blood bags

The release of the samples comes after the recent ruling by the Madrid Court of Appeal that WADA, the UCI and other organisations could finally access the blood and plasma samples that were seized from the Madrid clinic of Dr Eufemiano Fuentes in 2006. It was the end of a protracted legal wrangle as WADA attempted to gain access to the samples.

The 211 samples belong to cyclists and other sportspeople, who were potentially involved with blood doping organised by Fuentes. Several cyclists, including Ivan Basso and Jan Ullrich, have already been sanctioned as a result of the investigation but others have yet to be identified.

Watch: Cycling Weekly anti-doping debate highlights

"The UCI and WADA will continue their joint investigation into Operation Puerto, and will consider all possible legal options," both statements read.

It is likely that DNA from the samples will be checked against athlete's DNA profiles already held by WADA and the UCI to help identify the owners of the samples.

Cycling's global governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) has said that it will pursue the legal options available in order to analyse the contents of the blood and plasma bags seized during the Operacion Puerto doping raids.

After a prolonged legal process in Spain, a judge ruled on Tuesday that the 211 blood bags found in the Madrid clinic of Dr Eufemiano Fuentes in 2006 can be handed over to sports authorities for analysis. The bags have been in storage for over 10 years.

“The UCI applauds this decision," said UCI president Brian Cookson. "Although it is regrettable that we had to wait this long, in the end the message sent is clear.”

>>> Judge rules athletes implicated in Operation Puerto can be identified

The UCI will partner with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), the Spanish Cycling Federation (RFEC) and Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) in analysing DNA in the samples in order to determine who they belonged to and "where applicable, pursuing anti-doping rule violations".

Watch: Cycling Weekly doping debate highlights

So far several high-profile cyclists have been linked to samples in Operacion Puerto, including Alejandro Valverde, Jan Ullrich, Ivan Basso and Jörg Jacksche.

The blood bags were labelled with code names, making it hard to identify them. Athletes from other sports are also reported to have used the services of Dr Fuentes, but have never been named.

Dr Fuentes was acquitted by the judge in the Provincial Court of Madrid.

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) named Michele Ferrari, Lance Armstrong's long-term training guru, in a list of 114 banned support personnel it published on Monday. An association with those named on the list by athletes – even if not caught doping – can lead to a suspension.

The 62-year-old Italian was banned from working with athletes in his own country in 2002 and blocked worldwide in the US Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) case against Armstrong in 2012.

The agency's work showed Ferrari helped Armstrong with EPO, testosterone and blood transfusions during the years he became a Tour de France star. Armstrong lost it all, however, after the case ended. He received a life-time ban and was stripped of his seven Tour titles.

The Program, a film about Ferrari and Armstrong, is out October 16.

"WADA is increasingly of the belief that athletes do not dope alone, and that often there is a member of their entourage encouraging them to cheat," said WADA President, Sir Craig Reedie.

>>> The Ferrari system uncovered

"This new 'Prohibited Association' rule sends a clear message to athletes: do not associate with individuals that have breached anti-doping rules as they could encourage you to cheat the system and to rob your fellow athletes of their right to clean sport."

In Italy, Ferrari's clients – from Filippo Pozzato (Lampre-Merida) to Michele Scarponi (Astana) – served bans over the past years simply based on their association with the man known as 'Doctor Evil'.

On the list published, which WADA said that it will continually update, 61 are Italian. Philip Tinklin is the only Briton named. The father of five boxers received a life-time ban for steroid trafficking.

Sky's former doctor, Belgian Geert Leinders is on the list and banned for life for his work in previous teams.

>>> David Brailsford on Geert Leinders, and why telling the truth is only part of the process

Among the Italians are Guido Nigrelli, owner of the pharmacy at the centre of the Mantova investigation that brought a ban for former world champion Alessandro Ballan, and Carlo Santuccione, who ‘helped’ Danilo Di Luca and Riccardo Riccò and received a life-time ban in the Oil for Drugs case.

Working with the listed people violates WADA's Prohibited Association article 2.10.

"By publishing this list, WADA is helping athletes know which individuals to evade if they are to avoid violating the rules themselves.

“This list will also assist ADOs (Anti-doping Organisations) as it is their responsibility to advise their athletes of the support personnel that have 'disqualifying status' and the consequences of such association."

WADA published the full list and a related article on its website.

World Anti-Doping Agency chief David Howman has said that over 10 per cent of athletes could be using banned performance-enhancing substances, although he praised the efforts made by professional cycling as it has undergone a major shift away from doping in recent years.

Speaking to the BBC's HardTalk programme, WADA director general Howman said the number of sportspeople engaging in doping practices could be "far more than we would wish it to be - over 10 per cent. That is of concern because those being caught by the system is far lower than that. Not in all sports, in some sports."

Although Howman had concerns that doping is still taking place in professional cycling, he praised the anti-doping efforts being made by the sport's governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), particularly in the post-Lance Armstrong era.

"I have great respect for the way in which the UCI are now running their anti-doping programme," he said. Many sports are lagging behind the measures put in place by the UCI in the fight against doping, such as the biological passport system.

Tour de France leader Chris Froome and Team Sky have come under intense scrutiny at the race this year, facing questions from both the media and fans relating to doping. Sky took the unprecedented step of publishing Froome's power data from the race in an effort to end speculation that he is doping.

>>> What can we learn from Chris Froome’s power data?

Luca Paolini (Katusha) hit the headlines during this year's Tour when he failed an anti-doping test for cocaine. Italian Paolini, 38, has denied taking the drug, but could face a four-year ban if found guilty.

It's not just those at the top level of sport that are doping. Howman highlighted that young athletes are using illicit means to reach higher levels, but that they are 'under WADA's radar' and hard to detect.

"The area of most concern for us is the level of young athletes who have not broken through into the elite who are trying to get that breakthrough and are susceptible to taking drugs because that's a shortcut.

"Not only are they susceptible to taking drugs, they are being encouraged to do so by any one of a number of people that surround them - coaches, trainers, even parents - because it's way to make a lot of money."

WADA is responsible for co-ordinating the fight against doping in international sport, including the aim of bringing equal and effective anti-doping measures into all sports across the world. WADA's code is the anti-doping 'bible' for sports governing bodies.

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From January 1 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) introduced its amended World Anti-Doping Code. The headline-grabbing change was the increase in length of ban for athletes guilty of doping from two to four years, but there were other potentially wide-ranging changes made too. Here we summarise five significant alterations and additions.

1. If you help an athlete to dope or cover it up, then you're as guilty as they are

WADA used to list eight different types of Anti-Doping Rule Violation (ADRV). This has now been upped to 10, including 'Complicity'. If you have been involved in any way of assisting or covering up an ADRV by someone else, you can now been sanctioned in the same way as if you doped yourself. For example, if you encourage a rider to use banned substances then you too can face a four-year suspension from all activities related to professional cycling.

2. If you deal with a coach who is banned, you could face a two-year ban

Anyone who associates with a banned coach, doctor or physio can face a suspension for up to two years. This 'Prohibited Association' rule has been introduced into the list of ADRVs to prevent athletes from continuing to work with banned medics or coaches who have been proven to have been involved in doping. This could affect a number of individuals and cycling teams who have called upon the services of banned staff. This includes dealing with third parties acting as an intermediary between athlete and banned coach/medic.

The full list of Anti-Doping Rule Violations:

• Presence of a Prohibited Substance or its Metabolites or Markers in an Athlete’s Sample
• Use or Attempted Use by an Athlete of a Prohibited Substance or a Prohibited Method
• Evading, Refusing or Failing to Submit to Sample Collection
• Whereabouts Failures
• Tampering or Attempted Tampering with any part of Doping Control
• Possession of a Prohibited Substance or a Prohibited Method
• Trafficking or Attempted Trafficking in any Prohibited Substance or Prohibited Method
• Administration or Attempted Administration to any Athlete In-Competition of any Prohibited Substance or Prohibited Method, or Administration or Attempted Administration to any Athlete Out-of-Competition of any Prohibited Substance or any Prohibited Method that is prohibited Out-of-Competition
• Complicity
• Prohibited Association

3. You can have your ban reduced or eliminated if you assist in catching dopers and the people who help them

WADA now has the power to reduce or completely eliminate any ban if the athlete in question admits to doping and helps the authorities by giving substantial information. WADA has the final say on how much the ban is reduced relating to the amount and quality of information given. Any information passed on will remain confidential. This offers an incentive for riders caught doping to say where they obtained their banned substances and whether any other individuals were involved.

4. It's down to international sports federations to educate athletes to prevent doping

WADA's new code makes a clear distinction between information and education, with more emphasis on the latter to prevent doping before it starts. The onus is on International Federations to educate its athletes - in the case of cycling, this is the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). The code states: "Education programs should focus on prevention. Prevention programs should be values based and directed towards athletes and athlete Support Personnel with a particular focus on young people through implementation in school curricula."

5. Statute of limitations changed from eight to 10 years

Previously, it was not possible to be charged for a doping violation or act that was over eight years in the past. Exceeding the statute of limitations was something that Lance Armstrong's lawyers tried as a defence for allegations of historical doping back to the 1990s. WADA's statute of limitations has now been increased to 10 years, making it possible for athletes to be charged for doping infringements within that period. For example, this could include freshly revealed evidence of doping or involvement in doping that comes to light, or testing of stored samples from events within that 10-year period.

The full World Anti-Doping Code can be downloaded from WADA's website. UK Anti-Doping has also produced a factsheet outlining the key changes to the 2015 code.

Drug cheats will face a stiffer four-year ban under new rules that came into force from January 1 2015.

The World Anti-Doping Agency's revised rules sees the minimum ban for convicted dopers doubled from two to four years.

Athletes missing dope tests will also face stiffer penalties, with bans upped from 18 months to two years if they miss three tests within any 12-month period.

Those who fail an anti-doping test but subsequently prove they ingested the banned substance without knowledge will face a suspension of two years. This reinforces that there is still onus on the athlete that they are responsible for anything they ingest.

Any athlete that provides information to the authorities that assists in the fight against doping may have their period of suspension from competition reduced.

The changes come as part of WADA's 2015 World Anti-Doping Code, which also sees the statute of limitations increased from eight to 10 years among a number of other additions and amendments.

British Minister for Sport, Tourism and Equalities Helen Grant said: “The purpose of revising the Code is to better protect clean athletes around the world. Successful implementation will mean an innovative and robust anti-doping programme that reaches further than ever before, to more athletes, more support personnel and more sport lovers, all of who want to be part of sport free from doping.

“Like all those who care passionately about clean sport, we have long argued that the Code should be tough on those who cheat. The World Anti-Doping Agency listened and from January 1, we will see tougher sanctions – not just for athletes, but also for those who assist in the doping process.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3hk4g-2jS8

Sky's Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) request for Chris Froome in May showed that cycling's governing body is under-staffed, according to France's Journal du Dimanche newspaper. Froome received an exception to use a steroid due to a chest infection and won the Tour de Romandie, but the weekly pointed out errors in the process.

"The UCI does not have the committee of experts to issue the TUEs as has long been required by the World Anti-Doping Agency rules," the newspaper reported. "It's the sole responsibility of Dr Mario Zorzoli, UCI medical committee coordinator, to grant these authorisations that – as in Chris Froome's case – can aid performances."

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) code says that sport governing bodies, the UCI in cycling's case, must have a committee of "at least three physicians" to evaluate TUE requests. The UCI said last week that the TUE was granted "in compliance" with its rules and WADA guidelines. It added, "Any rider with the same symptoms as Christopher Froome would have received a similar TUE."

Sky's case bothered WADA, however. The weekly said that WADA Director General David Howman "is concerned" about the UCI's TUE process and asked it "to quickly fix the shortcomings identified in this case."

TUEs are thorny topic as some riders could abuse them in races. Some critics asked why Sky raced Froome if he was sick enough to pull out of Liège-Bastogne-Liège and to need to take corticosteroid prednisolone orally for Romandie.

"What has happened to the team's belief that TUEs should not be sought for riders in competition?" David Walsh wrote in the Sunday Times newspaper. "Team Sky like to portray themselves as the most ethical team in the peloton. The evidence says otherwise."

Sky's general manager, David Brailsford said last Sunday, "we've always stayed within the rules, so we've got nothing to hide."

Chris Froome and Sky respond to inhaler video

Sky's leader was filmed puffing on an asthma inhaler during stage two of the Criterium du Dauphine